Plants

What is calamondin?   Ι   Appearance  Ι   What does calamondin taste like?   Ι  Nutritional information   Ι  Uses   Ι   How to harvest and store calamondin  Ι   How to grow calamondin   Ι  Where to buy calamondin   Ι  What’s the difference between calamondin and kumquat?  Ι   Recipes

What is calamondin?

Calamondin (Citrus × microcarpa), also commonly known as calamansi, Phillipine lime, China orange and calamandarin is a type of acid citrus, from the family Rutacea. The precise origins of calamondin are somewhat uncertain due to its long history of cultivation, but it is believed to have originated in China as a hybrid between a kumquat and a wild species of mandarin. The calamondin was likely carried by traders and travellers along maritime trade routes to other parts of Asia, including the Philippines where it remains hugely popular.

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Julia Wilson

Julia is a writer and landscape consultant from Wollongong with a love of horticulture. She had been an avid gardener for over 30 years, collects rare variegated plants and is a home orchardist. Julia is passionate about learning and sharing her knowledge of plant propagation and plant toxicology. Whether it’s giving advice on landscape projects or sharing tips on growing, Julia enjoys helping people make their gardens flourish.

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Peace lily (Spathiphyllum spp.) is a perennial herbaceous plant native to the tropics of southeast Asia and Central and South America, specifically in regions like Costa Rica and Panama. This ornamental plant is popular as a houseplant for its glossy green leaves, white spathe flowers and ease of care. The ‘lily’ part of its common name refers to the flower’s resemblance to the white lily, a traditional symbol of purity. However, the peace lily isn’t a true lily, it belongs to the Araceae family, which also includes Monstera, Philodendron, Caladium, and Dieffenbachia species.

Other names:

• Spath
• White Flag
• White Anthurium
• White Sails
• Mauna Loa Peace Lily (specifically for the Spathiphyllum ‘Mauna Loa’ variety)

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Julia Wilson

Julia is a writer and landscape consultant from Wollongong with a love of horticulture. She had been an avid gardener for over 30 years, collects rare variegated plants and is a home orchardist. Julia is passionate about learning and sharing her knowledge of plant propagation and plant toxicology. Whether it’s giving advice on landscape projects or sharing tips on growing, Julia enjoys helping people make their gardens flourish.

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Psilocybin is a naturally occurring psychedelic compound produced by certain species of mushrooms. It has psychoactive properties, which means it can cause changes in perception, mood, and cognitive processes when consumed. The effects of psilocybin can vary but may include euphoria, altered thinking processes, paranoia, dizziness, dilated pupils, closed and open-eye visuals, synesthesia, an altered sense of time, and spiritual experiences.

Psilocybin is most commonly found in mushrooms of the Psilocybe genus. There are over 150 species of Psilocybe mushrooms, most of which are small, gilled, with a conic to convex cap, and a nondescript brown colour. The distribution is worldwide, where they prefer a moist, forested environment or meadows. Psilocybe cubensis is the most common species of psilocybin mushroom and has a wide distribution including the southeastern United States, Central America (Belize, Costa Rica, Guatemala), the Caribbean (Cuba, the Dominion Republic, Guadalupe, Martinique, Trinidad), South America (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Columbia, French Guiana, Paraguay, Uruguay, Peru), Southeast Asia (Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Malaysia, India, Australia, New Zealand, Fiji).

The word ‘psilocybe‘ is derived from the Greek words ‘psilós‘ (ψιλός ) which means ‘bare‘ and ‘kúbe‘ (κύβη) which means ‘head‘. This is a reference to the smooth cap of mushrooms within the Psilocybe genus.

Common names Psilocybe mushrooms

• Magic mushrooms
• Shrooms
• Sacred mushrooms
• Magic mushies
• Caps
• Liberty caps (a specific type of psilocybin-containing mushroom)
• Blue meanies
• Golden tops
• Cubes (short for Psilocybe cubensis, a common species of psychedelic mushroom)
• Boomers
• Purple passion
• Little smoke

Historical and cultural uses of psilocybin

Psilocybin mushrooms were introduced to the Western world in 1957 by a vice president of J.P. Morgan and amateur mycologist, R. Gordon Wasson and his wife Valencia. The Wassons travelled to Mexico in 1955 and participated in a traditional Mazatec ceremony and wrote an article published on May 13, 1957, in LIFE magazine titled ‘Seeking the Magic Mushroom‘. The following week, Wasson’s wife, Valencia published her own article in This Week describing her experiences with magic mushrooms.

The following year, Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann isolated the active compound in psilocybin mushrooms, which he named psilocybin. Interestingly, Albert was the first to synthesise and ingest lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD).

In the present day, indigenous groups in Central and South America, such as the Mazatec people in Oaxaca, Mexico, still use psilocybin mushrooms in spiritual and healing ceremonies. They’re typically used as sacraments to facilitate communication with the spiritual world, diagnose illnesses, or provide healing or insight.

Mechanism of action

When ingested, psilocybin is rapidly converted in the body into the active metabolite psilocin, the compound primarily responsible for the hallucinogenic effects. Dephosphorylation (removal of a phosphate group by hydrolysis) is facilitated by alkaline phosphatase enzymes which remove the phosphate group from the psilocybin molecule, converting it to psilocin.

Psilocin is a phenol compound that is an agonist (a compound that binds to and activates a receptor), for several types of serotonin receptors in the brain, in particular the 5-HT_2A–serotonin receptor. Serotonin (also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine) is a naturally produced neurotransmitter often referred to as the ‘feel good‘ neurotransmitter which plays a key role in many functions including regulating mood, sleep, appetite, sexual desire as well as appetite regulation, pain perception and digestive system function.

The chemical structure of psilocin is similar to that of serotonin, allowing it to bind to and activate the 5-HT_2A–serotonin receptors. This initiates a series of intracellular signalling events, leading to a variety of psychological and physiological effects.

The exact mechanisms through which the activation of 5-HT_2A–serotonin receptors is not yet fully understood. However, it is believed that the effects are related to the modulation of neural activity and the release of other neurotransmitters, such as glutamate in various regions of the brain, including the prefrontal cortex and visual cortex. Changes in brain connectivity and neural network activity may also contribute to the altered state of consciousness.

Why do some mushrooms produce psilocybin?

The exact reason is not fully understood, but it is believed that it may serve to protect the mushroom from insects, snails or slugs that might consume the fungi. Many of these insects are also in direct competition with fungi for food (rotting wood, decomposing organic material). Psilocybin has been found to suppress the appetite in Drosophila fruit flies.

How are psilocybin mushrooms consumed?

• Raw: The mushrooms can be eaten raw, however, the taste is commonly found to be bitter and unpleasant.
• Mushroom tea: The mushrooms can be steeped in hot water to make tea. This method makes them more palatable to consume and may also reduce nausea, a common side effect of consuming psilocybin mushrooms.
• Cooking: Psilocybin mushrooms can be used as an ingredient in food, often in soups, sauces or omelettes. The potency isn’t significantly reduced by cooking.
• Capsules: Psilocybin mushrooms are dried, ground into a powder and put into capsules. This eliminates the unpleasant taste and texture of the mushrooms.
• Microdosing: This method involves ingesting small amounts of psilocybin mushrooms, well below the threshold of psychoactive effects but is thought to enhance creativity and mood.

Bear in mind that the consumption of magic mushrooms is illegal in most countries.

Effects of psilocybin on the brain

Once converted to psilocin in the body, a range of physical and psychological effects develop within 20 minutes. Unlike common recreational drugs, psilocybin does not create dependence, however, people may experience psychological withdrawal.

Prefrontal cortex

One study found that ingestion of psilocybin decreased blood flow and neural activity in areas of the brain including the medial prefrontal cortex which is involved in complex cognitive behaviour such as personality expression, decision making and social behaviour. Volunteers whose brain regions were most inhibited reported the greatest level of hallucinatory effects. Researchers think this may be because inhibiting the prefrontal cortex ’causes the sense of self to be less active’.

Thalamus

The thalamus is a small structure located in the brain that processes and transmits sensory impulses from receptors to the cerebral cortex which is responsible for higher-level processes, such as memory, language, thought, decision-making, emotion, intelligence and personality. One study found that psilocybin reduced blood flow and neural activity in the thalamus which could lead to a decrease in normal filtering of information that the thalamus is responsible for, which could potentially allow more sensory information to be processed in other parts of the brain. The altered activity could contribute to sensory overload and distortions of perception such as intensified colours, sounds and emotions.

How long do the effects of magic mushrooms last?

Effects take approximately thirty minutes to develop and can last up to six hours. By 24 hours, it is not possible to detect psilocin in a person’s urine.

How is psilocybin metabolised?

After ingestion, psilocybin is rapidly converted into psilocin. This conversion is done in the liver by the enzyme alkaline phosphatase, which removes the phosphate group from psilocybin. Psilocin is able to cross the blood-brain barrier, interacting with serotonin receptors which leads to characteristic effects such as hallucinations, altered thoughts and emotions. The liver further metabolises psilocin by monoamine oxidase (MAO), an enzyme that oxidises psilocin into 4-hydroxyindole-3-acetaldehyde, which is further oxidised into 4-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid. Both of these compounds are conjugated (joined together) with glucuronic acid, which increases their solubility. These conjugates are then excreted out of the body in the urine.

How does it feel to take psilocybin?

They can range widely depending on the dose, the strength of the mushrooms as well as the person’s size, tolerance, weight and overall health. The current mindset and environment in which the mushrooms are taken, referred to as ‘set and setting‘ also impact the effects. If a person is already anxious or is in an uncomfortable setting, they have a higher risk of adverse effects. Tolerance can build up in people who have repeated exposure to psilocybin.

Risks and potential side effects

While death from an overdose of magic mushrooms is rare, taking them does come with risks.

• Bad trips: One of the worst experiences when taking any hallucinogen is the risk of a bad trip. A bad trip is a negative emotional reaction to the effects of the drug which can seriously affect the user. Heightened anxiety, depression, fear, paranoia, and panic attacks are all effects of a bad trip.
• Flashbacks can include visual distortions, emotional swings, and altered perception, which occur without warning. Triggers include stress, fatigue and the use of other drugs. Sometimes it is not always possible to identify a trigger.
• Psychosis: In rare cases, psilocybin may trigger psychotic episodes in some people, especially if they are predisposed to psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia.
• Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD): Commonly referred to as ‘flashbacks’, some people can experience persistent and sudden recurrence of sensory or psychological experiences induced by the drug, days, weeks or years after the original drug use.
• Incorrect identification of mushrooms: There is always the risk that the mushrooms you consume are not magic mushrooms, but other toxic species, which could potentially be deadly.

Psilocybin in medical research

Psilocybin has been gaining attention in medical research over the last two decades. The primary focus of this research has been on mental health disorders, such as depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and addiction.

• Depression: A double-blind trial involving 59 participants was carried out by researchers at the Centre for Psychedelic Research at Imperial College London. The results found that psilocybin was at least as effective as a leading antidepressant (a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor called escitalopram) in people with moderate to severe depression. The psilocybin group reported fewer cases of dry mouth, anxiety, drowsiness and sexual dysfunction than the escitalopram group.
• Anxiety and depression in life-threatening illnesses: Researchers at Johns Hopkins University found that a single dose of psilocybin significantly reduced anxiety and depression, anxiety and mood disturbance, along with increases in quality of life and decreases in death anxiety, in patients with life-threatening cancer.
• Smoking cessation: Another study at Johns Hopkins University found that long-term smokers with a history of failed attempts at quitting, found success after carefully controlled and monitored use of psilocybin. After six months, 80% of participants remained smoke-free, which is a staggering statistic compared to the 35%, six-month success rate of people who take varenicline, a drug widely considered to be the most effective smoking cessation drug.
• Cluster headaches: A new study involving 14 participants who suffer from cluster headaches found that a low dose of psilocybin, taken three different times with approximately five days in between each dose alleviated headache pain or frequency in some, but not all participants.

Legal status around the world

Source: Wikipedia

Here in Australia, from 1st July 2023, authorised psychiatrists will be able to prescribe psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression.

Julia Wilson

Julia is a writer and landscape consultant from Wollongong with a love of horticulture. She had been an avid gardener for over 30 years, collects rare variegated plants and is a home orchardist. Julia is passionate about learning and sharing her knowledge of plant propagation and plant toxicology. Whether it’s giving advice on landscape projects or sharing tips on growing, Julia enjoys helping people make their gardens flourish.

botany-world.com

Bluebells (Hyacinthoides non-scripta or Hyacinthoides hispanica) and hyacinths (Hyacinthus species) are subterranean bulbous perennials popular for their scented flowers that bloom in spring. All three species have, long, strapped leaves and bell-shaped flowers arranged on racemes. However, while bluebells and hyacinths share similarities, they are different species, which we will explore in this article.

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Julia Wilson

Julia is a writer and landscape consultant from Wollongong with a love of horticulture. She had been an avid gardener for over 30 years, collects rare variegated plants and is a home orchardist. Julia is passionate about learning and sharing her knowledge of plant propagation and plant toxicology. Whether it’s giving advice on landscape projects or sharing tips on growing, Julia enjoys helping people make their gardens flourish.

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What is Heuchera?  Ι   Appearance  Ι   Native habitat  Ι   How does Heuchera get its colourful leaves?  Ι   Planting and care  Ι   Uses   Ι  Propagation   Ι  Toxicity

At a glance

What is Heuchera?

Also known as coral bells, rock geranium or alumroot, Heuchera spp. (pronounced HUGH-ker-ah) is a clump-forming, herbaceous evergreen or semi-evergreen member of the Saxifragaceae family.  It is native to Northern USA and Mexico and consists of 55 species and dozens of cultivars. Heuchera is widely grown in gardens for its attractive ruffled, colourful foliage and delicate bell-shaped flowers which grow on long spikes. The foliage is found in a wide variety of colours including green, red, champagne, purple, orange, apricot, bronze and silver with contrasting veins.

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Julia Wilson

Julia is a writer and landscape consultant from Wollongong with a love of horticulture. She had been an avid gardener for over 30 years, collects rare variegated plants and is a home orchardist. Julia is passionate about learning and sharing her knowledge of plant propagation and plant toxicology. Whether it’s giving advice on landscape projects or sharing tips on growing, Julia enjoys helping people make their gardens flourish.

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What is convallarin?

Convallarin is a crystalline cardiac glycoside found in lily of the valley. Cardiac glycosides are a type of plant toxin that primarily affects the function of the heart. These compounds are characterised by their steroid-like structure (aglycone) bound to a sugar molecule (glycone).

Cardiac glycosides are plant steroids that are derived from the linear triterpene squalene. All cardiac glycosides have one of two ring structures that are connected to the steroid core at a particular point. Plants produce these secondary metabolites to protect themselves against herbivory.

All parts of lily of the valley are toxic, including the leaves, stems, flowers, rhizomes and roots. The highest concentration is in the rhizomes and roots.

What is lily of the valley?

Lily of the valley (Convallaria majalis) is a cardioactive herbaceous perennial in the family Asparagaceae that is native to Europe. Its natural habitat is deciduous and mixed woodlands, where it thrives in cool, moist, and shady environments. The plant was introduced to North America by European colonisers and remains a popular ornamental plant. Lily of the valley has since become naturalised in the northeastern and north-central regions of the United States, as well as in eastern Canada, where it can be found growing in shaded, moist woodland areas.

Lily of the valley is a popular garden plant, that is used as a ground cover in shady spots. It is extremely easy to take care of and is resistant to almost all pests and diseases. The plant prefers well-drained, humus-rich, and slightly acidic to neutral soils. Lily of the valley spreads easily by rhizomes known as ‘pips‘, forming a dense mat.

The attractive and highly fragrant nodding blooms are frequently used in wedding bouquets and in perfumes and scented products. Catherine, Princess of Wales used lily of the valley in her wedding bouquet.

Convallarin is only one of the 40 cardiac glycosides found in lily of the valley. Convallatoxin is considered the most potent, with similar properties to as digoxin (in foxglove) and ouabain (in climbing oleander). Ingestion may occur when the leaves of lily of the valley are mistaken for wild garlic (Allium ursinum), which has a similar appearance but is edible.

In addition to cardiac glycosides, lily of the valley also contains saponins. Saponins are naturally occurring compounds characterised by their amphiphilic structure (a molecule that has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties) that allows them to form soapy froths when mixed with water. Ingestion generally leads to gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting and diarrhea.

Lily of the valley is the national flower of Finland and Serbia.

Identification

Flowers:

Lily of the valley produces nodding, bell-shaped blooms from early to mid-spring. The flowers grow on arching stems 15 – 30 tall with one or two leaves and a raceme.  A raceme is a type of inflorescence (a cluster of flowers arranged on a stem). In a raceme, flowers are attached directly to the main stem, called the rachis, by individual stalks known as pedicels. White is the most common colour, however, there is a pink variety that is sometimes available.

Berries:

Small, vibrant red-to-orange berries that develop from the dainty, bell-shaped flowers in late summer and early autumn, are visually alluring and add a pop of color to the plant’s elegant, arching stems.

Leaves:

The upright leaf blades are 10 – 20 cm long and 2.5 – 5 cm wide with an elongated, elliptical or lanceolate shape. The edges of the leaves are smooth, and their surfaces are glossy and slightly veined. Leaves emerge from an underground rhizome to form a basal rosette around the flowering stem. Typically, they appear in pairs, with each leaf connected to the stem by a sheath-like base that is described as ‘clasping‘.

Use in herbal medicine

Lily of the valley has a long use in traditional medicine to treat cardiac, diuretic, emollient (skin softening) and laxative properties.

Mechanism of action

Convallarin binds to the alpha subunit of the sodium-potassium Na+/K+-ATPase pump located on the outer membrane of cells. The Na+/K+-ATPase enzyme actively transports three sodium ions (Na+) out of the cell and two potassium ions (K+) into the cell. When convallarin binds to the Na+/K+-ATPase pump, it inhibits the enzyme’s activity, reducing its affinity for potassium ions and increasing its affinity for sodium ions. Intracellular sodium levels increase, which causes a decrease in the activity of another ion transporter, the sodium-calcium exchanger (NCX), which typically exchanges one calcium ion for three sodium ions. The increase in intracellular calcium leads to an increase in the force of the contraction of the heart, known as ‘positive inotropic effect’. The increased intracellular calcium also stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system, specifically the vagus nerve, which acts to slow down the heart rate.

The heart is the primary target of convallarin, however, the Na+/K+-ATPase pump is also present in other cells in the body at lower concentrations. This means convallarin can also affect other body systems including gastrointestinal and neurological.

While convallarin’s primary target is the heart due to its influence on the sodium-potassium ATPase pump in cardiomyocytes, the pump is also present in other cell types throughout the body, albeit at lower concentrations. This means that convallarin can also affect other organ systems, leading to gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms.

Convallarin stimulates the smooth muscles in the gastrointestinal tract which increases their contractility resulting in enhanced activity. Neurological symptoms are due to convallarin crossing the blood-brain barrier, a highly selective semipermeable barrier formed by specialized endothelial cells lining the brain’s blood vessels, which regulates the passage of substances between the bloodstream and the brain. By inhibiting the sodium-potassium Na+/K+-ATPase pump in neurons, neuronal excitability can develop.

Clinical signs

The toxic effects of lily of the valley ingestion may be over-emphasised. One study found out of 2,639 cases of ingestion, only 6.1% reported symptoms and three showed severe side effects. Having said that, ingestion should be taken seriously and medical care sought. Early intervention can help prevent further absorption and reduce toxicity.

Gastrointestinal

• Anorexia
• Nausea
• Drooling
• Vomiting
• Diarrhea
• Abdominal pain

Cardiac

• Arrhythmia (irregular heartbeat)
• Bradycardia (slow heartbeat)
• Collapse
• Cardiac arrest

Neurological

• Confusion
• Dizziness
• Seizures
• Lethargy
• Headache
• Weakness

First aid

• If you, a family member or a pet have ingested any part of lily of the valley, call your local emergency number or poison control centre. You will be asked about the person’s age, weight, symptoms, and details about what was ingested, including the type of plant, the part consumed, and the estimated amount. Do not induce vomiting unless you are instructed to do so by a healthcare professional.
• Rinse the mouth to remove any remaining plant matter.
• Bring a sample of the plant to help healthcare professionals identify it.

Diagnosis

There is no specific laboratory test to detect convallarin itself. Diagnosis is based on a history of lily of the valley ingestion along with presenting symptoms and a diagnostic workup.

Treatment

There is no antidote to convallarin toxicity and treatment is aimed at the prevention of further absorption as well as managing clinical signs. Symptoms typically last between 1 – 3 days.

• Gastric decontamination: If ingestion was recent, the healthcare provider can induce vomiting to help remove the plant matter from the gastrointestinal tract. This will be followed by the administration of activated charcoal to bind to any remaining plant matter.
• Supportive care: Intravenous fluids may be initiated to treat or prevent dehydration, manage electrolyte derangements and help flush any remaining toxins from the body. Medications such as lidocaine or atropine for arrhythmia.
• ECG monitoring: Healthcare professionals will monitor the heart with an electrocardiogram, which records the electrical activity of the heart.

Julia Wilson

Julia is a writer and landscape consultant from Wollongong with a love of horticulture. She had been an avid gardener for over 30 years, collects rare variegated plants and is a home orchardist. Julia is passionate about learning and sharing her knowledge of plant propagation and plant toxicology. Whether it’s giving advice on landscape projects or sharing tips on growing, Julia enjoys helping people make their gardens flourish.

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