Toxins

Atropine is a tropane alkaloid that naturally occurs in plants of the nightshade family (Solanaceae). Members of this family include deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna), henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), Angel’s trumpet (Brugmansia spp.) and Jimson weed (Datura stramonium). Atropine acts as an anticholinergic agent, blocking the action of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the central and peripheral nervous system.

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Julia Wilson

Julia is a writer and landscape consultant from Wollongong with a love of horticulture. She had been an avid gardener for over 30 years, collects rare variegated plants and is a home orchardist. Julia is passionate about learning and sharing her knowledge of plant propagation and plant toxicology. Whether it’s giving advice on landscape projects or sharing tips on growing, Julia enjoys helping people make their gardens flourish.

botany-world.com

Is oleander toxic?

Nerium oleander, commonly referred to as ‘oleander‘, is a highly toxic plant native to the Mediterranean basin and Asia. The toxic properties are several cardiac glycosides collectively known as ‘cardenolides‘ including oleandrin, neriine, digitoxigenin, and digitoxin. These toxins disrupt the sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+ ATPase pump) in the cell membrane. The sodium-potassium pump maintains the proper balance of sodium and potassium ions inside and outside the cell, which is critical for many cellular processes, such as nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and nutrient uptake.

Cardiac glycosides are present in all parts of the oleander tree, including leaves, flowers, stems, roots and seeds. The highest concentration is found in the seeds, followed by the leaves. Dry oleander remains toxic and livestock have been poisoned by drinking water with the fallen leaves. Inhalation of smoke from burning oleander is also toxic.

Oleander poisoning ranks equal to mushroom poisoning for children’s hospital admissions in Australia and as little as one leaf can be fatal to an adult.

What is oleander?

Oleander is an ornamental shrub or small tree native to the Mediterranean, found in warm climates across the globe that is popular for its fragrant, showy flowers that bloom from late spring to autumn. The plant has long, narrow, leathery leaves that are arranged in whorls, and its five-lobed flowers grow in pink, red, white, cream, orange and purple.

Oleander is a popular ornamental plant due to its showy and fragrant flowers that bloom from late spring to fall, and its ability to tolerate a range of soil types and climatic conditions. The plant has long, narrow, and leathery leaves that are arranged in whorls, and its flowers are typically pink, red, or white and five-lobed. Oleander is also known for its use in traditional medicine, where it has been used to treat various ailments such as asthma, bronchitis, and stomach disorders.

In addition to its ornamental value, oleander has been used in traditional medicine to treat heart conditions, skin irritations and respiratory problems.

It is important for home gardeners to be aware of the plants in their garden and the potential risks some pose. As a pet owner and gardener, oleander is not a plant I would choose to grow due to its high degree of toxicity.

Identification

Leaves

The leaves are long, narrow, and lance-shaped (lanceolate), measuring between 10 – 15 cm long and 2.5 cm wide. Leaf colour is glossy green on the upper surface, with a smooth and leathery texture. The leaves are arranged in pairs or whorls along the branch.

Flowers

The trumpet-shaped flowers have a diameter of 3 – 6 cm and are borne in clusters at the end of the branches. Each flower has five loves that are often ruffled at the edges.

Oleander flowers are showy and trumpet-shaped, with a diameter of 1.5 to 3 inches. Each flower has five petal-like lobes that are often slightly ruffled at the edges. The flowers are borne in clusters at the end of branches and can range in color from white to various shades of pink and red, depending on the cultivar. The flowers typically bloom from late spring through the fall, with a peak bloom period in the summer. The plant also produces a slender, cylindrical seed pod that contains numerous small, feathery seeds.

Toxicity

The toxic properties are oleandrin, neriine, digitoxigenin, and digitoxin, collectively known as cardiac glycosides. Cardiac glycosides are a secondary metabolite that affects the function of the heart by inhibiting the activity of the Na+/K+ ATPase pump. The concentration of these toxins can vary depending on the age of the plant, time of year and environmental conditions. Of all the cardiac glycosides that occur in oleander, oleandrin is the most toxic.

Touching oleander is generally not harmful, however, always wash your hands thoroughly after handling any part of the plant.

Mechanism of action

Oleander contains cardiac glycosides, including oleandrin, which can interfere with the function of the Na+/K+ ATPase pump.

• Inhibition of Na+/K+ ATPase pump: The primary mechanism of action for oleander toxicity is the inhibition of the sodium-potassium ATPase pump (Na+/K+ ATPase) in cell membranes, particularly in cardiac myocytes (muscle cell). This pump plays a crucial role in maintaining the balance of sodium and potassium ions across the cell membrane, which is essential for generating and propagating electrical impulses in the heart.
• Disruption of the ion balance and electrical activity: Inhibition of the Na+/K+ ATPase pump causes sodium ions to accumulate in the fluid inside the cell (intracellular fluid), while potassium ions accumulate in the fluid outside the cell (extracellular fluid). This imbalance causes a depolarisation of the cell membrane (a change in the electrical potential across the cell membrane, resulting in a less negative or more positive potential difference between the inside and outside of the cell), which in turn, activates voltage-gated calcium channels, leading to an influx of calcium ions into the cells.
• Increased intracellular calcium and force of contraction: The increase in intracellular calcium levels enhances the contractile force of the heart (positive inotropic effect) which can lead to excessive workload on the heart and increased oxygen demand, potentially causing arrhythmias, heart failure, or ischemia.

Disruption of the normal electrical activity within the heart due to the altered ion balance can lead to various types of arrhythmias (abnormal heart rhythms) and conduction abnormalities. These disturbances can range from relatively mild, such as premature ventricular contractions (PVCs), to potentially life-threatening, such as ventricular tachycardia or fibrillation.

Severe poisoning can lead to neurological disorders as the toxins affect the balance of neurotransmitters in the brain. Altered ion balance interferes with the generation and propagation of electrical signals in neurons, leading to impaired nerve impulse transmission.

In addition to the toxic effects on the heart, oleander can also cause a variety of extracardiac symptoms due to its action on smooth muscle cells of the gastrointestinal tract.

What is the purpose of cardiac glycosides?

Cardiac glycosides are secondary metabolites (metabolites not involved in the growth or reproduction of the plant) that are produced to protect the plant against herbivory from animals and insects. Other plants known for their cardiac glycosides include foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), lily of the valley (Convallaria majalis), hawthorn (Crataegus spp.), squill (Urginea maritime), Christmas rose (Hellebore spp.) and cascabela (Cascabela thevetia).

How does oleander poisoning occur?

Poisoning may be accidental, or deliberate (attempted murder or suicide). Children and pets are at greater risk due to their curious nature while adults may mistake oleander for a non-toxic species.

Herbal remedies from unknown sources, or using unknown ingredients is another potential risk factor. Always buy supplements and remedies from reputable sources and know what’s in the product.

Burning oleander plant material can release toxic fumes as cardiac glycosides aren’t destroyed by heat.

Poisoning can also occur if food or drink is contaminated with oleander plant parts, such as using oleander branches for skewers, mistakenly using oleander leaves as a food wrap, or brewing tea from the leaves or flowers.

What are the symptoms of oleander poisoning?

Ingesting or contact with any part of the plant can lead to a host of symptoms affecting the cardiovascular, gastrointestinal and neurological systems. The severity of the symptoms can vary depending on the amount of toxin ingested and the individual’s susceptibility, but prompt recognition and treatment are critical for managing the toxic effects and improving the chances of recovery. The following list details some of the most common symptoms associated with oleander poisoning:

Gastrointestinal:

• Loss of appetite
• Nausea (possibly with blood)
• Vomiting
• Diarrhea
• Melena (dark, tarry stools caused by the presence of digested blood)
• Abdominal pain

Cardiac:

• Palpitations (irregular, rapid, or forceful heartbeats)
• Bradycardia (slower than normal heartbeat)
• Tachycardia (faster than normal heartbeat)
• Arrhythmias (abnormal heart rhythms)
• Chest pain
• Dyspnea (shortness of breath)
• Heart failure
• Sudden cardiac arrest

Neurological:

Dermal:

Dermal contact with oleander sap can cause skin irritation in some individuals. While dermal contact with oleander is generally less dangerous than ingestion or inhalation, it is still important to exercise caution when handling this plant. If you come into contact with oleander sap, wash the affected area thoroughly with soap and water to minimize irritation. If you develop a rash or severe skin reaction, consult a healthcare professional for appropriate treatment.

Use in medicine

Despite its toxic nature, the toxic compounds have potential medical uses.

• Cardiac applications: Oleander extracts have been historically used in small, controlled doses to treat heart failure and certain arrhythmias. The cardiac glycosides in oleander, exert positive inotropic effects (increasing the force of the heart’s contractions) and negative chronotropic effects (decreasing the heart rate) by inhibiting the sodium-potassium ATPase pump in heart cells, which increases intracellular calcium levels.
• Anticancer activity: Some compounds derived from oleander have been studied for their potential anticancer effects. One such compound is Anvirzel, a patented extract derived from oleander. Anvirzel has shown promising results in preclinical studies by inducing apoptosis (programmed cell death) in cancer cells. It is thought that the cardiac glycosides in Anvirzel may inhibit cancer cell growth by disrupting cellular metabolism and energy production. Clinical trials are ongoing to evaluate the safety and efficacy of Anvirzel for cancer treatment.

Treatment

There is no specific antidote to oleander toxicity. The goal of treatment is to decontaminate the GI tract to prevent further absorption and manage clinical signs.

• Gastrointestinal decontamination: If the poisoning occurred through ingestion and the patient presents within one hour of exposure, healthcare providers can induce vomiting to decontaminate the GI tract, this will be followed up with administration of activated charcoal (a highly porous form of carbon with a large surface area and strong adsorptive properties, commonly used to bind to and remove toxins) to bind to any remaining toxins and reduce their absorption in the gastrointestinal tract.
• Fluid therapy: Intravenous fluids can help maintain blood pressure and hydration, as well as support kidney function and assist in the elimination of toxins and correct electrolyte imbalances.
• Antiarrhythmic medications: If the patient experiences life-threatening arrhythmias due to oleander toxicity, healthcare providers may administer antiarrhythmic medications to help stabilize the heart rhythm.
• Digoxin-specific antibody fragments (Digibind or DigiFab): Healthcare providers may consider using digoxin-specific antibody fragments for severe toxicosis. This medication binds  to and neutralises cardiac glycosides, thereby reversing their toxic effects on the heart. Although these antibody fragments were initially developed for digoxin poisoning (cardiac glycoside medication derived from the foxglove plant), they have shown effectiveness in treating severe oleander poisoning as well.
• Supportive care: Healthcare providers will continue to monitor and manage any symptoms or complications that arise from oleander poisoning, such as treating pain, nausea, or seizures, and providing respiratory support if necessary.

Safety

• Keep out of reach of children and pets: Make sure oleander plants are planted or stored in areas inaccessible to children, pets, or livestock. Puppies are like toddlers, and they love to explore their world. Unlike toddlers, they have no hands and everything goes into their mouths. As the current owner of a puppy, I have regularly watched her proudly bring branches and sticks into the house to play with. Educate children about the potential dangers of the plant and instruct them not to touch or ingest any part of it.
• Wear protective gear: Wear gloves, long sleeves, and eye protection when handling oleander.
• Wash hands and tools: After handling oleander, thoroughly wash your hands and any tools used to avoid accidental ingestion or contact with the toxic compounds.
• Avoid burning: Never burn oleander plant parts, as the smoke can release toxic compounds that may cause respiratory irritation or other harmful effects if inhaled.
• Be cautious with plant debris: Dispose of oleander clippings and plant debris carefully. The toxins can remain potent even in dried or dead plant material.
• Do not use for food preparation: Never use oleander plant parts or utensils that have come into contact with the plant for food preparation or consumption.
• Seek immediate medical attention: If you or someone you know ingests any part of an oleander plant or experiences symptoms of oleander poisoning (such as vomiting, diarrhea, irregular heartbeat, dizziness, or seizures), seek immediate medical attention.

How long does oleander poisoning last?

Julia Wilson

Julia is a writer and landscape consultant from Wollongong with a love of horticulture. She had been an avid gardener for over 30 years, collects rare variegated plants and is a home orchardist. Julia is passionate about learning and sharing her knowledge of plant propagation and plant toxicology. Whether it’s giving advice on landscape projects or sharing tips on growing, Julia enjoys helping people make their gardens flourish.

botany-world.com

What Are Nettles?     The Nettle Family     How Do Nettles Sting?     Chemical Components Of A Nettle Sting   The Purpose Behind Nettle Stings     Effective Remedies     Duration Of Symptoms     Why Don’t Nettles Sting When Eaten?     Nettle Uses

What Are Nettles?

Nettles, also known as stinging nettles, are herbaceous plants that have needle-like hairs on their leaves and stems. These hairs contain a mixture of chemicals that cause a stinging, burning sensation when they come into contact with the skin. This reaction, called urticaria, can result in symptoms such as itching, redness, and swelling.

The Nettle Family

Nettles were likely introduced to Australia by European settlers. Over time, it has spread across various regions, thriving in disturbed soils, which are common in areas of human activity. In Australia, nettles can be found in a range of habitats, including urban areas, gardens, near waterways, and in agricultural lands. They prefer moist, nutrient-rich soils and can often be found in shaded areas.

The name ‘nettle‘ is derived from the Anglo-Saxon word ‘netel‘, which means ‘to sting‘.

How Do Nettles Sting?

• The underside of the leaf and entire stem of the stinging nettle is covered in fine hollow hairs (known as trichomes or spicules) approximately 1 mm long, with a base that is more flexible and a brittle tip. Nettles synthesise and store the neurotransmitters histamine, acetylcholine, serotonin and formic acid which are stored in the base of the trichomes.
• The tip of the trichome is reinforced with silica, which makes it brittle and easily breakable upon contact. When something brushes against the nettle, the fragile silica tip breaks off, leaving a sharp point. Once the tip is broken, the trichome acts like a hypodermic needle. The pressure from contact forces the chemicals stored in the base of the trichome through the hollow tube and into whatever touched it, like injecting a substance through a needle causing contact urticaria.

Chemical Components Of A Nettle Sting

Inside these trichomes, the nettle produces a cocktail of chemicals. This mixture typically includes histamine, which causes itching and swelling; acetylcholine, which increases pain sensitivity; serotonin, which contributes to pain and discomfort; and formic acid, which can cause a burning sensation.

Acetylcholine

Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that activates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). When acetylcholine interacts with nAChRs on sensory nerve endings in the skin, it triggers the release of histamine, which can hives and itching. Acetylcholine can also increase sensitivity to pain and inflammation in some cases, by activating nociceptors (pain receptors) and promoting the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Histamine

Histamine is a neurotransmitter produced by several living organisms that is involved in several physiological processes. When histamine pierces the skin, it binds to H1 receptors on nerve endings, it activates a signalling pathway involving the protein phospholipase C (PLC). Inositol triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG) are secondary messengers that are released, which cause an influx of calcium ions into the cells triggering the release of neuropeptides, such as substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), which activate sensory nerve fibres, transmitting the sensation of itchiness to the brain. Histamine also causes vasodilation, increased blood flow and inflammation in the affected area, which further contributes to the sensation of itchiness.

Serotonin

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that is involved in the transmission of signals in the nervous system, and it plays a role in inflammation and pain sensation. When released from the trichome, it binds to receptors on sensory nerve fibres, causing them to fire, which sends signals to the brain, that are interpreted as itching, pain and burning.

Formic acid

Formic acid is a small and highly reactive molecule found in the venom of many insects such as bees and ants, as well as one of the chemicals in the trichomes of stinging nettles.  It interacts with nociceptors (pain receptors) located in the skin, triggering the sensation of stinging and burning.

Formic acid also causes inflammation in the skin, leading to redness, swelling and itching.

The Purpose Behind Nettle Stings

Plants have adapted several ways to protect themselves against herbivory. Thorns, spikes and prickles, toxins, tough, waxy or hairy leaves, strong odours, inducing the sensation of burning, rapid growth and mimicry. The purpose of the stinging sensation is to deter animals and insects from eating the nettle.

Nettles fall into the toxic category. Plant toxins act as a defence and can range from mild to deadly. While extremely uncomfortable, most cases of nettle exposure are unpleasant, but not serious. However, some people may experience a severe allergic reaction to nettle stings and experience swelling of the face and throat, difficulty breathing, rapid heartbeat and low blood pressure. One person I spoke to recently described being pushed into a crop of nettles as a teenager, experiencing widespread stings that required hospitalisation.

Personal Experience: What Does a Nettle Sting Feel Like?

I would describe the feeling as a sharp and burning sensation along with intense itching. As an active bushwalker and gardener living in Australia, I’m quite often bitten or scratched by various insects and plants. Still, nothing has stung as much as I experienced when I accidentally brushed past some nettles during a visit to England a few years ago. While the discomfort didn’t last for more than an hour or two, it was certainly unpleasant.

Effective Remedies

Dock leaves (Rumex spp.) are a common remedy for relieving symptoms associated with stinging nettles. The exact mechanism of action is unknown but may be due to the mucilage and tannins in the leaves that may help to neutralise the irritant compound from nettles. It is also possible that they offer a placebo effect.

• Wash the affected area: Use soap and water to wash the affected area and remove any remaining stinging hairs. There are some suggestions that you should wait ten minutes to allow the chemicals to dry, that will make removing them easier. However, others claim they should be removed immediately to reduce skin irritation and remove any remaining trichomes.
• Apply a cold compress: A cold compress can reduce swelling and relieve pain and itching.
• Topical creams: Over-the-counter corticosteroids or antihistamines can reduce inflammation and relieve itching.
• Apply a paste of baking soda and water: Mix baking soda with water to make a paste and apply it to the affected area. This can help neutralise the chemicals and relieve symptoms.
• Take over-the-counter pain relievers such as ibuprofen or paracetamol to relieve discomfort.

Duration Of Symptoms 

Untreated, the symptoms last between 2 – 24 hours, however, treating the affected area can reduce the duration.

Debating the Venomous Nature of Nettles

The jury seems to be out as to whether nettles are venomous or not. Generally, venom is associated with animals such as snakes and spiders which inject their venomous toxin using specialised stingers or barbs. However, the nettle also injects its toxic substance, so is often classed as venomous.

Why Don’t Nettles Sting When Eaten?

When nettles are cooked the heat destroys the trichomes along with the chemicals they contain, making nettles to handle and eat. The heat from cooking causes the trichomes to burst and the chemicals are denatured and broken down. This process is known as hydrolysis. Soaking nettles in water before cooking can also remove some of the chemicals and reduce the stinging sensation.

Nettle Uses

It’s not all bad news when it comes to nettles, they have a long history of culinary and medicinal uses, which include:

• Antihemorrhagic agent: Nettles have been used to control menstrual bleeding and nosebleeds.
• Arthritis: The anti-inflammatory properties such as flavonoids, lectins, phenolic acids and triterpenoids may assist with pain and inflammation associated with arthritis. Fresh stinging nettles are applied to the joint in a process known as urtification.
• Urinary tract infections: Nettles are believed to have diuretic properties that can assist in flushing out the urinary system and prevent urinary tract infections.
• Skin conditions: The anti-inflammatory and astringent properties of nettles can be used to treat eczema, psoriasis and acne.
• Allergies: Nettles contain antihistamine compounds which include quercetin, kaempferol and lectins that can help to reduce allergic reactions.
• Benign prostatic hyperplasia (prostate enlargement): One study¹ involving 287 patients found that the phytosterols, lignans and polysaccharides in nettles were able to significantly reduce the International Prostate Symptom Score (IPSS) score, serum PSA and prostate size.

Nettles have been a food source for centuries and are a popular ingredient in many traditional dishes, particularly in Europe. Culinary uses of nettle include nettle soup, pesto, tea and smoothies. Nettles are a great source of A, B, C, and K, proteins, iron, calcium, magnesium, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, amino acid and antioxidants.

The tough fibres in the stalks of nettles have been used for thousands of years to create strong and durable textiles, such as linen and cordage. Nettle fibre is durable and has a unique texture. Recently, there has been a growing interest in using nettles as a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative to traditional textiles.

Wear protective clothing when harvesting nettles, even when cut down, they can still sting.

References:

1. Ghorbanibirgani A, Khalili A, Zamani L. The Efficacy of Stinging Nettle (Urtica Dioica) in Patients with Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia: A Randomized Double-Blind Study in 100 Patients. Iran Red Cres Med J. 2013;15(1):9-10. DOI:10.5812/ircmj.2386

Julia Wilson

Julia is a writer and landscape consultant from Wollongong with a love of horticulture. She had been an avid gardener for over 30 years, collects rare variegated plants and is a home orchardist. Julia is passionate about learning and sharing her knowledge of plant propagation and plant toxicology. Whether it’s giving advice on landscape projects or sharing tips on growing, Julia enjoys helping people make their gardens flourish.

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What is abrin?

Abrin is a ribosome-inactivating protein (RIP) found in the seeds of the rosary pea (Abrus precatorius L.), family Fabaceae. The rosary pea is a herbaceous flowering plant in the legume family, native to Africa, Madagascar, India and Indo-China. The black and red beans have been used to make jewellery in some cultures. The seeds are often strung together to create necklaces and bracelets, and their small size and colourful appearance make them popular for decorative purposes.

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Julia Wilson

Julia is a writer and landscape consultant from Wollongong with a love of horticulture. She had been an avid gardener for over 30 years, collects rare variegated plants and is a home orchardist. Julia is passionate about learning and sharing her knowledge of plant propagation and plant toxicology. Whether it’s giving advice on landscape projects or sharing tips on growing, Julia enjoys helping people make their gardens flourish.

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Poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) and Queen Anne’s lace (Daucus carota) are biennial plants with similar feather-like leaves and umbel flowers. One is a popular garden plant, the other one is highly toxic. However, the similarity between the two poses a risk due to the high toxicity of poison hemlock which can easily be mistaken for Queen Anne’s lace.

Poison hemlock

Poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) is a biennial plant native to Europe and North Africa but has been introduced to many other parts of the world. It is known for its high toxicity, which can be fatal to both humans and animals. The entire plant, especially the seeds, contains coniine, which disrupts the functioning of the central nervous system. Ingestion of even a small amount can cause vomiting, paralysis, and, in severe cases, death. Historically, the plant has been used as a method of execution, including the famous death of the philosopher Socrates.

Coniine is an alkaloid that acts on the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction, blocking the transmission of nerve impulses to the muscles. This can lead to muscle paralysis and even death through respiratory failure. Its symptoms of poisoning are often characterised by a burning sensation in the mouth and throat, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain, followed by progressive paralysis of the skeletal muscles.

Poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) is different to water hemlock (Cicuta douglasii), which also has a similar appearance. While both plants are highly toxic, and should not be handled or ingested, water hemlock is considered more toxic, in fact, it is the most violently toxic plant that grows in North America.

Related: Water hemlock vs Queen Anne’s lace

Queen Anne’s lace

Also known as wild carrot, Queen Anne’s Lace, is a flowering plant native to temperate regions of Europe and southwest Asia, but has naturalised in North America and Australia. This biennial plant can grow to about 1.5 metres (5 feet) tall and has a distinctive white or chocolate, lace-like flower head, or umbel, which closes up in a cup-like shape once the blooming is over. Interestingly, the flower cluster often contains a single dark purple floret in the centre, a feature considered unique to this species. The stems are hairy, solid, and grooved, and the leaves are finely divided and fern-like. The root is long, thin, and edible while young, with a flavour similar to cultivated carrots.

The sap of Queen Anne’s lace contains furocoumarins. If the sap gets onto the skin and the skin is then exposed to strong sunlight, a rash, blisters, and discolouration may occur, similar to a severe sunburn. This reaction is most commonly associated with handling the leaves and stems of the plant. While the roots and flowers have lower levels of these compounds, caution is still advised, especially for individuals with sensitive skin or known reactions to other plants in the Apiaceae family, such as parsnips or celery.

Difference between poison hemlock and Queen Anne’s lace

 Flowers

Leaves

Stem

Julia Wilson

Julia is a writer and landscape consultant from Wollongong with a love of horticulture. She had been an avid gardener for over 30 years, collects rare variegated plants and is a home orchardist. Julia is passionate about learning and sharing her knowledge of plant propagation and plant toxicology. Whether it’s giving advice on landscape projects or sharing tips on growing, Julia enjoys helping people make their gardens flourish.

botany-world.com

Calcium oxalate crystals are found in five morphologies:

• Raphides (needle-shaped crystals)
• Druses (spherical aggregate of individual crystals)
• Styloids (elongated crystals with ridged or pointed ends)
• Prismatic (four or more sides similar in length and width)
• Crystal sands (minute crystals in a single cell).

The focus of this article is raphides, which pose the greatest risk to humans and animals due to their shape which allows them to penetrate the tissues of the oropharynx and gastrointestinal tract. They can vary in size from micrometres to several millimetres and may be straight, clustered in groups, curved or spiral shaped or branched with multiple needle-like projections.

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Julia Wilson

Julia is a writer and landscape consultant from Wollongong with a love of horticulture. She had been an avid gardener for over 30 years, collects rare variegated plants and is a home orchardist. Julia is passionate about learning and sharing her knowledge of plant propagation and plant toxicology. Whether it’s giving advice on landscape projects or sharing tips on growing, Julia enjoys helping people make their gardens flourish.

botany-world.com

Saponins are a class of natural compounds found in many plant species, that typically taste bitter. They are characterised by their amphiphilic nature, which means they have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties, due to the presence of a hydrophobic triterpene or steroidal sapogenin backbone and one or more hydrophilic sugar molecules attached to it. Saponins play a protective role in plants, serving as a natural defence mechanism against predators and pathogens.

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Julia Wilson

Julia is a writer and landscape consultant from Wollongong with a love of horticulture. She had been an avid gardener for over 30 years, collects rare variegated plants and is a home orchardist. Julia is passionate about learning and sharing her knowledge of plant propagation and plant toxicology. Whether it’s giving advice on landscape projects or sharing tips on growing, Julia enjoys helping people make their gardens flourish.

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